GH-51156: [C++] Raise CapacityError instead of truncating binary values over 2 GiB

[ngoldbaum]

Rationale for this change

BaseBinaryBuilder::Append(std::string_view), ExtendCurrent(std::string_view) and ChunkedBinaryBuilder::Append(std::string_view) cast the value size to int32_t before validating it, so a value of 2 GiB or more is stored as an empty or truncated value. See #51156.

What changes are included in this PR?

The three overloads validate the 64-bit size before narrowing it, returning the same CapacityError that ValidateOverflow produces for the other paths.

Are these changes tested?

Yes, two LARGE_MEMORY_TEST cases in array_binary_test.cc. They fail without the fix.

Are there any user-facing changes?

BinaryBuilder, StringBuilder and ChunkedBinaryBuilder now return CapacityError for a string_view value of 2 GiB or more instead of storing wrong data.

This PR contains a "Critical Fix". The builders produced incorrect data for such values.

AI disclosure: I used an AI model to think about and iterate on the fix. It also originally identified the bug.

• GitHub Issue: [C++] BinaryBuilder and ChunkedBinaryBuilder silently truncate values of 2 GiB or more #51156

[github-actions]

⚠️ GitHub issue #51156 has been automatically assigned in GitHub to PR creator.

[andishgar]

@pitrou, I have already solved this problem here to enable BinaryViewBuilder to accept more than 2GB of data. It has been long-awaited in the review. :-)